{"id":16657,"date":"2022-04-06T22:28:36","date_gmt":"2022-04-07T05:28:36","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/?p=16657"},"modified":"2026-11-04T07:13:44","modified_gmt":"2026-11-04T14:13:44","slug":"the-ultimate-guide-to-the-design-and-construction-of-structural-steel","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/tutorials\/the-ultimate-guide-to-the-design-and-construction-of-structural-steel\/","title":{"rendered":"The Ultimate Guide To The Design and Construction of Structural Steel"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Structural steel erection is the field work of hoisting fabricated columns, beams and braces into position, connecting them, bringing the frame into plumb and completing the permanent bolted and welded joints, so the skeleton can stand on its own and take decking, floors and follow-on trades.<\/strong> It is the last link in a chain that runs from design and detailing through fabrication and site preparation, and a weak link anywhere shows up on site as lost crane time, fit-up problems or safety risk.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Written for site supervisors, project managers and estimators, the guide works through each link in turn: roles and scope, design, detailing and fabrication, site preparation, a ten-step erection sequence, the OSHA Subpart R rules that come up most, bolting, field welding, and the inspections that close out the package.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Who Does What on a Structural Steel Project<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Many steel disputes start with an unclear split of scope. Typical U.S. responsibilities look like this, though your contract governs:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><thead><tr><th>Party<\/th><th>Main responsibilities<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Architect<\/td><td>Building form, grids, floor-to-floor heights and the architectural requirements the frame has to meet<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Structural engineer of record (EOR)<\/td><td>Loads, structural system, member sizes, design drawings and specifications; approves connection designs and any field changes to anchor rods or members<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Steel detailer<\/td><td>Builds the detailing model and produces shop drawings, erection drawings and fabrication data; flags conflicts through RFIs<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Fabricator<\/td><td>Buys mill material, fabricates pieces, may design connections where the contract delegates them, and ships in erection sequence<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Steel erector<\/td><td>Means, methods and safety of erection: the erection plan, cranes, connecting, temporary bracing, plumbing, field bolting and welding<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>General contractor \/ controlling contractor<\/td><td>Overall schedule, site access and laydown, foundations and anchor rods (often), coordination with concrete, MEP and envelope trades, written approval to start erection<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Special inspector<\/td><td>Independent inspection of fabrication and erection where the building code requires it<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Arrangements vary: in some markets the fabricator also erects, and decking and studs may sit with the erector or a separate contractor. Settle these points before award.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Owners choose steel for long clear spans, lighter foundations, speed (pieces are fabricated while foundations are built), seismic ductility and easier later alterations. The trade-offs are material and fabrication lead time, fire protection and, where exposed, corrosion protection.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">How Steel Frames Are Designed<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The Design Sequence<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Set the geometry.<\/strong> The architect establishes the grids, floor heights, openings and massing around the building&#8217;s use.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Establish the loads.<\/strong> The EOR calculates dead, live, snow, wind and seismic loads, normally under ASCE 7 as adopted by the local building code.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Choose the lateral system.<\/strong> Wind and seismic forces are carried by braced frames, moment frames, concrete cores or a combination, and that choice drives connection types and erection stability.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Size the members.<\/strong> Beams, columns and braces are designed to AISC 360, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, in the edition your building code adopts.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Design the connections.<\/strong> The EOR either designs them or shows the forces and delegates the design to the fabricator&#8217;s engineer, as the AISC Code of Standard Practice (AISC 303) allows.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Detail for fabrication and erection.<\/strong> Members and connections are modelled in full, with shipping limits, crane capacity and erection access in mind.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Several OSHA Subpart R rules land on the drawings, not just on site: perimeter columns must extend 48 inches above the finished floor with holes or devices for perimeter safety cables at set heights, and double connections through a shared column web need a seat or a bolt that can stay in place while the second beam is connected.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Connection Types<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Field riveting gave way to high-strength bolting in the second half of the 20th century. Today the usual approach is to weld in the shop, where conditions are controlled, and bolt in the field, where speed matters. Connections fall into three broad groups:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Simple shear connections<\/strong> such as single plates (shear tabs), double angles and seated connections. They pass vertical shear from beam to support and are assumed to let the beam end rotate. These are by far the most common.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Moment connections<\/strong> that hold the angle between beam and column, used in moment frames and cantilevers. They usually involve flange welds or bolted end plates and need more field work.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Bracing connections<\/strong> that join diagonal braces to beams and columns through gusset plates.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Bolted joints are classified by how the bolts are tightened. <em>Snug-tightened<\/em> joints rely on the bolts bearing against the sides of the holes. <em>Pretensioned<\/em> joints have bolts tightened to a high tension, at least 70% of the bolt&#8217;s minimum tensile strength. <em>Slip-critical<\/em> joints are pretensioned and also rely on friction between prepared faying surfaces, and they are used where slip would be a problem, such as joints subject to fatigue or load reversal and many joints with oversized or slotted holes. Welded joints are either groove welds (complete or partial joint penetration) or fillet welds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Structural Steel Materials and Shapes<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Steel is strong in tension, compression and shear, behaves the same in every direction and is made to tight tolerances. Its weaknesses are corrosion and loss of strength in fire, so most frames need coatings, fireproofing or both.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Common U.S. material grades include ASTM A992 for wide-flange (W) shapes, with a minimum yield strength of 50 ksi, plus ASTM A36 and A572 for plates and angles and ASTM A500 for <a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/glossary\/hollow-steel-section\/\">hollow structural sections<\/a>. Rolled shapes are named by type, nominal depth and weight: a W14x90 is a wide-flange about 14 inches deep weighing 90 lb per foot. Within one nominal depth, heavier sections have thicker flanges and webs, and AISC publishes the full set of dimensions and section properties (area, moment of inertia, section modulus, radius of gyration) that designers and detailers work from.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Detailing and Fabrication<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Detailing<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Almost all steel is now detailed in 3D. The model produces the shop drawings for each piece, the erection drawings for the site, bills of material and the CNC files that drive saws, drill lines and plate processors. Shop drawings go to the EOR for review before fabrication starts, and that review loop is often on the critical path, so schedule it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Detailers push as much work into the shop as they can, limited by legal truck loads, crane capacity at the setting radius, laydown space and site access. Coordinating with the architectural and MEP models catches clashes, such as ducts through beams, while they are still cheap to fix.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Fabrication<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Fabrication starts with mill shapes and plate. Typical shop operations include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Cutting to length by saw or thermal cutting, and coping beam ends<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cambering beams where the drawings call for it<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Drilling or punching bolt holes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Fitting up and welding connection material<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Surface preparation and shop priming, where specified (faying surfaces of slip-critical joints and areas to receive fireproofing often stay unpainted)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Shop quality control, piece marking and loading in erection sequence<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Fabrication time depends on tonnage, connection complexity, welding and shop automation, so get a realistic duration from the fabricator and track it against the erection start.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div style=\"height:40px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignfull size-large\"><picture><source srcset=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited.webp 2079w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-300x169.webp 300w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-1024x576.webp 1024w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-768x432.webp 768w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-1536x864.webp 1536w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-2048x1152.webp 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2079px) 100vw, 2079px\" type=\"image\/webp\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"2079\" height=\"1169\" src=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited.jpeg\" alt=\"-\" class=\"wp-image-16662 sp-no-webp\" srcset=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited.jpeg 2079w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-1024x576.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-1536x864.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/5E4DFC0C-9627-4B0E-9904-B9105436984E-edited-2048x1152.jpeg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2079px) 100vw, 2079px\"><\/picture><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<div style=\"height:40px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preparing the Site for Steel Erection<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Before the first column arrives, three things need to be in place: a delivery and laydown plan, accurate anchor rods, and an erection plan that has been checked against the site.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Deliveries, Laydown and Shakeout<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Every piece carries an erection mark tying it to a zone and location, and deliveries are planned zone by zone so the crane never waits for steel and the site is never buried in it. How much steel you can receive at once depends on laydown and shakeout space. Where there is room, a staging area lets crews sort pieces and pre-assemble small items before they are lifted. On tight urban sites, deliveries are often timed so steel is lifted straight off the trailer. Truck size and permit limits for long or heavy pieces come from state and local transport rules, so check them early for long trusses or girders.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Anchor Rods and Base Plates<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Anchor rods cast into footings, piers or mats are where the concrete and steel scopes meet, and where many erection delays begin. Survey every rod group before the steel arrives and resolve problems with the EOR then, not when a column is hanging from the hook.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Tolerances:<\/strong> older editions of the AISC Code of Standard Practice limited the variation between rods in a group to 1\/8 inch. Since the 2016 edition, tolerances are set per rod according to its diameter, to match the oversized holes used in base plates. The current edition is ANSI\/AISC 303-22, so check which edition your contract cites.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Leveling:<\/strong> columns are set to elevation on leveling nuts under the base plate, on steel shim packs or on preset leveling plates, then the space beneath the plate is grouted.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>OSHA rules:<\/strong> under 1926.755, each column must be anchored by at least four anchor rods, and rods may not be repaired, replaced or field-modified without the EOR&#8217;s approval. The controlling contractor must tell the erector in writing about any such change before that column is erected.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Scope split:<\/strong> agree in writing who sets leveling plates and loose base plates. Under the Code of Standard Practice&#8217;s default split, light items that can be set by hand fall to others and those needing a crane fall to the erector, but contracts often change this.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Erection Planning<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The erection plan is shaped by the contract (sequence and coordination with other trades), regulations (safety, environmental and labour rules), the structure itself (stability at every stage) and the site (access, space, overhead hazards). The erection drawings show each piece&#8217;s mark and location, the sequence and zone boundaries, the bolt schedule and the tightening method for each joint.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Field engineering for the erection typically covers:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Dividing the building into zones and fixing the erection sequence<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Listing piece weights and centres of gravity, and checking the heaviest picks<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Selecting and positioning cranes, and checking ground bearing under outriggers or tracks<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Designing temporary bracing, guys and any temporary steel (AISC Design Guide 10 covers erection bracing of low-rise frames). AISC 303 makes temporary supports the erector&#8217;s job to work out, supply and install.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Checking construction loads on partly completed floors<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Identifying &#8220;leave-out&#8221; bays where steel is held back to give access for cranes or other trades<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Planning personnel lifts, access and fall protection anchorage<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Crane choice depends on the heaviest load at the greatest radius it has to reach. Mobile and crawler cranes handle most low- and mid-rise frames, while tall buildings and very tight sites usually need tower cranes. Lifts close to the crane&#8217;s capacity, tandem lifts with two cranes, personnel lifts and lifts near power lines are usually classed as critical and need a written lift plan prepared by a qualified person; see our guide on <a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/tutorials\/how-to-plan-your-next-construction-crane-lift\/\">how to plan a construction crane lift<\/a>. For power lines, OSHA 1926.1408 uses a 20-foot minimum clearance as the default unless the line is de-energized or the utility confirms the voltage and the Table A clearances are applied.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Before erection starts, OSHA 1926.752 requires the controlling contractor to give the erector written notice that the concrete in footings, piers and walls has reached 75% of its intended minimum compressive design strength (or enough strength to carry the erection loads) and that any anchor rod repairs have been approved. The site also needs graded, drained and compacted access for cranes and deliveries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Tier Versus Billboard Erection<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Erectors generally build a multi-story frame in one of two ways:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Tier (horizontal) erection<\/strong> sets the columns for a tier, usually two or three floors, as determined by column splice lengths, then fills in the beams floor by floor, typically perimeter first, before moving up. It keeps the crane working efficiently and lets whole floors be completed together, so erectors usually prefer it.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Billboard (vertical) erection<\/strong> takes a slice of the building to full height, bay by bay, before moving across. It is slower for the erector, but the general contractor may ask for it so that other trades can start work in finished parts of the building sooner.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<div style=\"height:40px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignfull size-large\"><picture><source srcset=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited.webp 2111w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-300x169.webp 300w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-1024x576.webp 1024w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-768x432.webp 768w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-1536x864.webp 1536w,https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-2048x1152.webp 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2111px) 100vw, 2111px\" type=\"image\/webp\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"2111\" height=\"1187\" src=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited.jpeg\" alt=\"-\" class=\"wp-image-16663 sp-no-webp\" srcset=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited.jpeg 2111w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-1024x576.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-1536x864.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2022\/04\/D8D8A107-8338-4DC1-8419-11D64000C417-edited-2048x1152.jpeg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2111px) 100vw, 2111px\"><\/picture><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<div style=\"height:40px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Structural Steel Erection Sequence: Step by Step<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Each project has its own erection plan, but most structural steel installation follows the same order. Use this list to review the erector&#8217;s plan or to run the pre-erection meeting.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Plan the erection.<\/strong> Review the erection drawings, zones and sequence, the crane and lift plans and the temporary bracing design. If the erector proposes alternative means of fall protection, a site-specific erection plan under OSHA 1926.752(e) is also needed.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Get written approval to start.<\/strong> The controlling contractor confirms in writing that the concrete is strong enough, that any anchor rod repairs are approved, and that crane and delivery access is ready.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Survey anchor rods and bearing surfaces.<\/strong> Compare rod locations, projections and elevations with the drawings and settle any deviations with the EOR before steel arrives.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Receive and shake out steel.<\/strong> Unload zone by zone, sort by erection mark, look for shipping damage and confirm bolts come in identified lots with certificates.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Set and secure columns.<\/strong> Land each column on its leveling nuts or shims, tighten the anchor rod nuts and add guys or braces where the plan calls for them.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Raise and connect beams.<\/strong> Keep each solid-web member on the hook until every connection has its minimum two wrench-tight bolts of the specified size and grade (OSHA 1926.756), or the EOR&#8217;s specified equivalent.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Plumb, line and brace.<\/strong> Survey the frame, pull it within AISC tolerances with guys and turnbuckles, and keep the temporary bracing until the permanent lateral system is complete.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Make the final connections.<\/strong> Bolting crews tighten to the method on the bolt schedule and welders finish field welds to the approved procedures.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Install decking and shear connectors.<\/strong> Deck follows the steel up the building; shear studs are welded through or onto the deck afterwards, never onto a bare top flange.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Inspect and hand over.<\/strong> Finish QC and special inspections, clear the punch list, grout the base plates and release each floor to fireproofing, MEP and envelope trades.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Raising, Connecting and Plumbing the Frame<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The <em>raising gang<\/em> rigs each piece, signals the lift and guides it into place; the <em>connectors<\/em> working at height make the first connection. Columns go up first, then the girders and beams that tie them together. Connectors line up holes with spud wrenches and drift pins and install the erection bolts OSHA requires before the load is released: two per connection for solid-web members and at least one for a diagonal brace. Where two beams frame into opposite sides of a column web through the same holes, at least one bolt must stay in the first beam unless a seat or similar device holds it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Fit-up problems usually come from misaligned holes, pieces that clash with neighbouring members, or obstructions left by other trades. The Code of Standard Practice treats correcting minor misfits with moderate reaming, grinding, welding or cutting, and drawing pieces into line with drift pins, as normal erection work. Bigger misalignments should be reported promptly to the owner&#8217;s representatives and the fabricator so the responsible party can fix them or approve a repair, rather than being solved on the spot with a torch.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Several OSHA rules control how lifting is done around the crews. Routes for suspended loads must be planned so no one works under a load except the connectors making the initial connection and the workers hooking or unhooking it. Cranes must be visually inspected by a competent person before each shift. Multiple-lift rigging (sometimes called &#8220;Christmas treeing&#8221;) is allowed only with a purpose-designed rigging assembly, for no more than five members per lift, for beams and similar members only, and with trained crews.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">OSHA 1926.754 also limits how far erection can run ahead of finished work:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Permanent floors must follow the steel up, with a gap of eight stories at most between the erection floor and the highest permanent floor<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Unfinished bolting or welding may extend at most four floors or 48 feet, whichever is less, above the foundation or the highest permanently secured floor<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Directly below any erection work there must be a fully planked or decked floor, or nets, no more than two stories or 30 feet down, whichever is less<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These limits can be exceeded only where the design maintains structural integrity. Where a competent person decides it is needed, plumbing-up equipment (guys, turnbuckles and braces) goes in as erection progresses and must be in place before the structure is loaded with construction material.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Plumbing<\/em> means bringing the frame within the erection tolerances before final bolting and welding. The basic AISC column tolerance is 1:500 between working points, with extra limits on how far exterior columns and columns next to elevator shafts can drift from their lines (for exterior columns in the first 20 stories, 1 inch toward and 2 inches away from the building line). Crews check plumb with total stations or transits and pull the frame in with guy cables and turnbuckles. A good QC program records the readings and has them checked independently.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Key OSHA Subpart R Requirements for Steel Erection<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the U.S., structural steel erection is regulated by OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart R (1926.750 to 1926.761). These are the rules site teams are asked about most often. Always read the current text and any state plan requirements before relying on a summary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><thead><tr><th>Topic<\/th><th>What the rule requires<\/th><th>Reference<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Approval to begin<\/td><td>Written notice to the erector that footings, piers and walls have reached 75% of their intended minimum compressive design strength, or enough strength for erection loads<\/td><td>1926.752(a)-(b)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Site-specific erection plan<\/td><td>Needed when the employer adopts alternative means of protection; written by a qualified person and kept on site<\/td><td>1926.752(e)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Crane inspection<\/td><td>Competent person visually inspects each crane before every shift<\/td><td>1926.753(c)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Working under loads<\/td><td>Suspended-load routes planned so only connectors and riggers hooking or unhooking are ever under a load<\/td><td>1926.753(d)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Multiple lifts<\/td><td>Up to five members per lift, beams and similar members only, with purpose-designed rigging and trained crews<\/td><td>1926.753(e)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Column anchorage<\/td><td>Four anchor rods minimum per column; rod repairs or modifications only with EOR approval<\/td><td>1926.755<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Beam connections<\/td><td>Two wrench-tight bolts minimum in each connection before the hoisting line is released<\/td><td>1926.756(a)(1)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Unfinished connections<\/td><td>Bolting or welding may lag by no more than four floors or 48 ft, whichever is less, unless the design keeps the frame stable<\/td><td>1926.754(b)(2)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Floor protection<\/td><td>Decked or planked floor, or nets, within two stories or 30 ft (whichever is less) below erection work<\/td><td>1926.754(b)(3)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Fall protection<\/td><td>Protection above 15 ft for most steel erection work; connectors must be protected above two stories or 30 ft, whichever is less<\/td><td>1926.760(a)-(b)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Controlled decking zone<\/td><td>Permitted from 15 ft up to 30 ft; maximum 90 ft by 90 ft from the leading edge and 3,000 sq ft of unsecured deck<\/td><td>1926.760(c)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Training<\/td><td>Extra training for connectors, multiple-lift crews and CDZ workers<\/td><td>1926.761<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For harness systems, anchorage and rescue planning, see <a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/tutorials\/basics-of-fall-protection\/\">the basics of fall protection<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Bolted Connections<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Bolt Grades<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A bolting assembly is the bolt, nut and washer (or direct tension indicator) used together. Since 2015, ASTM F3125 has covered the main high-strength structural bolts, which used to have separate standards. The current RCSC Specification groups them by strength:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Group 120<\/strong> (120 ksi minimum tensile strength): ASTM F3125 Grade A325 heavy hex bolts and Grade F1852 twist-off bolts<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Group 150<\/strong> (150 ksi): ASTM F3125 Grade A490 heavy hex bolts and Grade F2280 twist-off bolts<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>ASTM A307<\/strong>: lower-strength bolts used for secondary and non-structural connections, not for pretensioned or slip-critical joints<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Bolts reach site in identified lots with manufacturer certificates. Where joints are pretensioned, RCSC requires pre-installation verification at the start of work: a sample of no fewer than three complete assemblies for every diameter, length, grade and lot combination is tightened in a bolt tension calibrator, and each must reach 1.05 times the required minimum pretension using the crew&#8217;s own method and tools. Choose bolt lengths so the threaded end finishes level with, or beyond, the face of the nut.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Reuse is restricted. Plain-finish Group 120 heavy hex bolts can be reused in snug-tightened joints, and in pretensioned or slip-critical joints only with the EOR&#8217;s approval. Galvanized or coated bolts, twist-off assemblies with coatings, and all Group 150 bolts must not be reused. Retightening a bolt that has merely loosened slightly (&#8220;touching up&#8221;) does not count as reuse.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Snug-Tight, Pretensioned and Slip-Critical<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Most shear connections only need snug-tightened bolts, which bring the plies into firm contact. In RCSC&#8217;s terms, that is the tightness reached with a few blows of an impact wrench, an electric wrench run until it starts to slow, or an ironworker pulling hard on a spud wrench. Pretensioned and slip-critical joints need every bolt brought to the minimum pretension for its diameter and grade, using one of the approved methods below, and they usually need more crew time and inspection.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Bolt Pretensioning Methods Compared<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><thead><tr><th>Method<\/th><th>How tension is confirmed<\/th><th>Site notes<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Snug-tight<\/td><td>Plies drawn into firm contact<\/td><td>Only for joints where pretension is not specified<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Turn-of-nut<\/td><td>Nut turned a set amount past snug-tight, from 1\/3 of a turn up to a full turn depending on bolt length and face slope (RCSC table)<\/td><td>Match-mark nut and bolt end so the inspector can see the rotation<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Calibrated wrench<\/td><td>Wrench set to give at least 1.05 times the minimum pretension, verified on a bolt tension calibrator<\/td><td>Calibrate at least daily for each lot, diameter and condition of bolt<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Twist-off tension-control bolt<\/td><td>Splined end shears off when the bolt reaches tension<\/td><td>Quick visual check; still needs pre-installation verification<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Direct tension indicator (ASTM F959)<\/td><td>Protrusions on the washer compress until the feeler gauge is refused in more than half of the gaps<\/td><td>Orient the protrusions away from the work and check gaps with the gauge<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Combined method (added in the 2020 RCSC Specification)<\/td><td>Calibrated initial torque followed by a specified nut rotation<\/td><td>Uses matched assemblies; follow RCSC inspection requirements<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Whatever the method, snug every bolt in the joint first, working from the stiffest part of the joint outward, and only then apply the final tightening. For an engineering primer, see AISC Design Guide 17 on <a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/files\/information\/guides\/design-guide-17-high-strength-bolts-a-primer-for-structural-engineers\/\">high-strength bolts<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Field Welding of Structural Steel<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Welding Basics<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Welding fuses the parts together, usually with added filler metal, into a single continuous piece. Done properly, the joint can match the strength of the base metal, which bolting, brazing or adhesives cannot. The molten metal has to be shielded from the oxygen and nitrogen in the air, which would make it brittle and porous; depending on the process, shielding comes from the electrode coating, a flux inside the wire, an external shielding gas, or a granular flux.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Weld quality depends on controlling heat. Current, voltage, travel speed and plate thickness set how fast the weld cools, which governs hardness, toughness, residual stress and distortion; that is why welding procedure specifications (WPSs) fix these variables and thicker steels need preheat. Weldability is mainly a question of chemistry: the common structural grades weld readily, while higher-carbon or alloyed steels need more care. Cold, wet or windy conditions on site add to the risk, so preheat, dry electrodes and wind protection matter.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Common Field Welding Processes<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><thead><tr><th>Process<\/th><th>How it works<\/th><th>Field strengths<\/th><th>Watch out for<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW, &#8220;stick&#8221;)<\/td><td>Flux-coated electrode supplies filler and creates its own gas shield and slag<\/td><td>Simple, portable equipment; works in any position and in tight spots<\/td><td>Slower deposition; quality depends heavily on welder skill; keep low-hydrogen electrodes dry<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Self-shielded flux cored (FCAW-S)<\/td><td>Tubular wire fed continuously; flux inside the wire provides all the shielding<\/td><td>High deposition and tolerant of wind, so widely used for field welding<\/td><td>Heavy fumes need ventilation and fume control; contact-tip and wire-feed problems<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Gas-shielded flux cored (FCAW-G)<\/td><td>Flux cored wire plus an external shielding gas<\/td><td>High deposition and good weld quality<\/td><td>Wind blows the gas away, so it needs screens or enclosures outdoors<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Gas metal arc (GMAW, &#8220;MIG&#8221;)<\/td><td>Solid wire fed continuously with an external shielding gas<\/td><td>Fast, clean welds with little slag; easy to learn<\/td><td>Very sensitive to draughts outdoors; risk of lack of fusion if parameters are wrong<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Process choice also depends on whether a joint needs a large volume of weld metal quickly (fill), whether it is vertical or overhead and needs a fast-freezing puddle, and how deep the fusion must go (penetration). Typical defects to look for are porosity, undercut, lack of fusion, slag inclusions, cracking and poor weld profile. Arc blow and excessive spatter are common symptoms of set-up problems.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Quality Control and Inspection of Structural Steel Work<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Quality on steel work is shared between the fabricator&#8217;s and erector&#8217;s own quality control (QC) and the owner&#8217;s quality assurance (QA). In the U.S., IBC Section 1705.2 requires special inspection of structural steel, and AISC 360 Chapter N lists the QC and QA tasks for welding and bolting, with each task marked as one to observe or one to perform. Field welding follows AWS D1.1\/D1.1M, Structural Welding Code \u2013 Steel (current edition 2025), using qualified procedures and welders.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Site checks that catch most problems before they are built over:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Foundations:<\/strong> anchor rod survey signed off before columns are set; base plate grouting recorded afterwards.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Paperwork:<\/strong> mill certificates and bolt lot certificates filed; pre-installation verification done for every bolt combination in use.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Pieces:<\/strong> marks, sizes and orientation checked against the erection drawings as steel goes up.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Geometry:<\/strong> plumb and alignment surveys logged against the AISC tolerances.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Bolting:<\/strong> washers and DTIs the right way round, and pretension confirmed by the method on the bolt schedule.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Welding:<\/strong> welder qualifications checked, every field weld visually inspected, and NDT carried out where the drawings require it.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Stability:<\/strong> temporary bracing and guys kept in place until the permanent lateral system is finished.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Deck:<\/strong> deck fastening and shear studs inspected before any concrete is poured.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Choosing a Structural Steel Erection Contractor<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Price matters, but these points decide whether a steel erector can deliver your frame safely and on time:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Certification:<\/strong> AISC&#8217;s Certified Steel Erector program is a useful filter, but since January 2025 its audits no longer cover safety, so assess the erector&#8217;s safety program and incident record on their own.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Relevant experience:<\/strong> building height, moment frames, heavy transfer girders and congested urban sites all call for different methods; ask for comparable projects.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Cranes:<\/strong> check they own or can rent cranes with enough capacity at the radius of your heaviest picks.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Engineering:<\/strong> request a recent erection plan, lift plan and bracing design to see the quality of their planning.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Crew training:<\/strong> connectors and controlled decking zone workers need the specific training Subpart R requires; ask for records.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Scope gaps:<\/strong> put in writing who provides deck and studs, who sets and grouts base plates, and who surveys the anchor rods.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Whether the frame is an office block, a bridge or a pipe rack, the same basics apply. Careful erection planning, a clear split of responsibilities and inspection that keeps pace with the crane are what turn them into a safe, accurate structure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Frequently Asked Questions About Structural Steel Erection<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">What is structural steel erection?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It is the site work of hoisting fabricated steel members into position, connecting and plumbing them, and finishing the permanent bolted and welded joints, so the frame is stable and ready for deck and the trades that follow.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">What is metal erection work?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Metal erection, or ironwork, is the trade that raises and connects structural steel, joists, metal deck and similar components. It covers rigging and crane signalling, connecting at height, bolting, field welding and installing decking, and in the U.S. it falls under OSHA&#8217;s steel erection standard, Subpart R.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">How is structural steel installed?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Once the controlling contractor confirms in writing that the foundations are ready, the erector sets columns over the anchor rods on leveling nuts or shims, then lifts in the beams and holds each one with at least two bolts per connection. The frame is surveyed, plumbed and braced, final bolting and welding follow, deck and shear studs go in, and the work is inspected before the floors are handed over.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">What does a structural steel erector do?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The erector owns how the frame goes up and how its crews stay safe doing it: planning the erection, receiving and sorting steel, crane lifts, connecting, temporary bracing, plumbing, field bolting and welding, and fall protection.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Which OSHA standard covers steel erection?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart R, sections 1926.750 to 1926.761. Its rules cover written approval to start, site layout, hoisting and rigging, column anchorage, beam and column connections, joists, decking, fall protection and training.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">How many bolts are needed before a beam is released from the crane?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Two per connection. Under OSHA 1926.756(a)(1), a solid-web member stays on the hoisting line until each end has at least two bolts of the size and strength on the erection drawings, tightened wrench-tight, or an equivalent connection specified by the engineer of record.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">What is the difference between snug-tight and pretensioned bolts?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Snug-tight only pulls the plies into firm contact, which is enough for most shear connections. Pretensioning goes much further, to at least 70 percent of the bolt&#8217;s minimum tensile strength, and must be achieved and verified with an RCSC method such as turn-of-nut, calibrated wrench, twist-off bolts or direct tension indicators. Pretensioned and slip-critical joints need it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Related Templates and Guides<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/files\/construction\/safety\/work-permits\/critical-lift-permit\/\">Critical Lift Permit<\/a> \u2013 a permit form for engineered and critical crane lifts<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/files\/construction\/safety\/inspections\/mobile-crane-construction-checklist\/\">Mobile Crane Construction Checklist<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/files\/information\/guides\/design-guide-01-column-base-plates-and-anchor-design\/\">Design Guide 01 \u2013 Column Base Plates and Anchor Design<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/files\/information\/guides\/design-guide-10-erection-bracing-of-low-rise-structural-steel-frames\/\">Design Guide 10 \u2013 Erection Bracing of Low-Rise Structural Steel Frames<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/files\/information\/guides\/design-guide-21-welded-connections-a-primer-for-engineers\/\">Design Guide 21 \u2013 Welded Connections: A Primer for Engineers<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/files\/information\/guides\/design-guide-23-constructability-of-structural-steel-buildings\/\">Design Guide 23 \u2013 Constructability of Structural Steel Buildings<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/files\/information\/codes\/ansi-303-16-code-of-standard-practice-for-steel-buildings-and-bridges\/\">ANSI\/AISC 303-16 \u2013 Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges<\/a> (check against the current 2022 edition)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/essential.construction\/files\/construction\/safety\/toolbox-talks\/toolbox-talk-welding-and-cutting\/\">Toolbox Talk \u2013 Welding and Cutting<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Sources<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC): AISC 360, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, and AISC 303, Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges, which covers design and shop drawings, fabrication, erection, tolerances, quality assurance and contracts.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>ASTM International standards for structural steel, bolts (ASTM F3125) and testing.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Research Council on Structural Connections (RCSC), Specification for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts (2020).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>American Welding Society (AWS), D1.1\/D1.1M Structural Welding Code \u2013 Steel.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 29 CFR 1926 Subpart R \u2013 Steel Erection.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Structural steel is a common building material &#8211; understanding the critical components and processes can help you on your project.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":16661,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[157,3],"tags":[4,136,96],"class_list":["post-16657","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-division-05-metals","category-all-posts","tag-construction","tag-steel-1","tag-structure","generate-columns","tablet-grid-50","mobile-grid-100","grid-parent","grid-33"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/16657","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=16657"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/16657\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":20450,"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/16657\/revisions\/20450"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/16661"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=16657"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=16657"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/essential.construction\/academy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=16657"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}